Effect of Technology on the Workplace

Effect of Technology on the WorkplaceIntroductionTechnology is a useful servant tho a dangerous master (Christian Lous Lange). The quote suggests that the way people perceive and adopt engine room determines whether the result is an upgrading or de-skilling as an entrap on their execution of instrument and expertise. The essay out business stock will comprise and cover a definition of engine room and the concepts of technological determinism and organisational choice an underline of the relationship in the midst of technology and administration a specification of disparate challenges and inter organizational issues upon the introduction of new(a) technologies that have impact on the skills and qualities of people. Finally, The example event study of Zeta- i of the contribute fifty software program companies in The United States, will support the assumption that new technologies do not inevitably lead to de-skilling when they are understood, controlled and utilize c arefully and professionally.Discussing technology in the context of contemporary society can be an ambiguous issue. The way that people understand this concept is as various as is the unique human personality. Instead of putting new technology in the frames of global computer ne iirks, intelligent machines or flying cars, it is more well-founded to look at technology at an organizational level, as an irrefutable bulge of organizations structure, managerial decision making, employees performance and skills, and the overall welfare of each company. then it will be useful first to introduce the concept of technology and to examine what changes and evolution it has undergone in the last centuries.While some people scarce associate technology with its everyday practical meaning, a more comprehensive view will be to look beyond the notion of the simple routine and exploitation of technology and to focus on extent of inter bodily process and mutual relationship between technology and organization (Corbett, M. and Scarbrough, H., 1992). At this point a promissory note needs to be made between two concepts technological determinism and organizational choice. As K. Grint and S. Woolgar suggest technological determinism portrays technology as an exogenous and autonomous teaching which coerces and determines social and economic organizations and relationships (Grint, K. and Woolgar, S., 199711). While this theory clearly signifies the impact of technology upon organizations and individuals in way that it encages people to transform and shape their skills accordingly to the technology, the concept of organizational choice highlights that Technology has no impact on people or performance in an organization independent of the purposes of those who would use it, and the responses of those who have to work with it( Buchanan and Huczynski 1985222, cited by Corbett and Scarbrough 19925). Referring these concepts to the theories and practices of Henry Ford where technology as well as workers were tools for maximizing profit and comparing it with nowadays organizations where individuals rights and qualities are of main concern, a pattern of increment of technologys role in the organization can be observed. Looking at different interpretations of new technology, it will be helpful to understand the relationship between technology and organization, the problems and setbacks that whitethorn occur during its executing and the employees and managers adaptation and behavior towards such issues.Turning back to the 40s of 20th century, the time when Henry Ford introduced the assembly line into his company, is one of the most relevant examples to examine the impact that this new technology had on the skills , productivity and efficiency of the workers. Although at first the implication of the assembly line was conceived as a beneficial, efficient and innovative tool, rising the profitability of the company rapidly, the myth was soon crushed by decreasing ent husiasm, low-toned skilled hollow force , high free reinover and lack of interest and motivation- the worst scenario for an organization. This was the inevitable result of a profit driven management and wrong process of technology introduction, encircled in employ power, force and alienation and trying to make up morale by offering higher wages. impertinently technology incited counter- arable effects on employees, deskilling and degradation of jobs and feeling of human beings controlled by the technology (Grint,k. and Woolgar,S. 1997120,121). However, these results were not simply implied by technology itself but by the lack of any managerial methods and changes towards the apparent deterioration of employees and thus companys development, which lead to the tight relationship between organizations and technology. Since the time of Ford a muckle has changed, going through Post-Fordism methods which are concentrated to increase the skill levels and flexibility and to provide teamwork structures (Grint,k. and Woolgar,S. 1997122) and reaching nowadays organizations, where management is highly concerned with providing cooperative and inspiring atmoshpere and flexible, knowlegeable employees who can easily adopt to the new technology changes and challenges.As Autor, Kratz and Krueger (1998) indicate, the introduction of computers in the 1970s has lead to a stable increase in the demand for educated workers and has upgraded faster the skills of the workforce (cited by Helpman and Rangel, 1999 361).The following part will discuss the skill, knowledge and identity of technology users, the introduction of technology and the managerial and workers perceptions of it, and the problems that can occur in organizations and how they can be overcome.First, it will be useful to define skill and its role in the implementing of technology and managerial decision making. According to Steven Wood, there is a need to distinguish between the different types of skills partic ularly what might be called tacit skills exercised by people even in those jobs which are labeled unskilled and/or ostensibly routine in nature (Wood, S., Acta Sociologica 19877). When talking or so tacit knowledge, it is connected to individual experience and qualities which can be slightly different from the skills that are required in a particular working environment for the fact that people have different way of reacting to stressful situations or implementation of new and complicated technology or any kind of innovation. In this context we can outline the different physical and mental discomforts like anxiety, sleeplessness, pressure and alienation that may result from the introduction of new technology as Turnage (1990) suggests. Therefore, when an issue like this occurs, managers should stress their get hold ofments on looking on the individuals level of qualities and characteristics in order to support the adaptation and productive change of the worker. As Burkhardt and Brass suggest a change by individuals results in a change in the entire system(1990 105).When talking about human involvement with technology in an organizational environment some aspects of social interaction must be observed, like power, meaning and norms. Although a lot has changed since the time of Henry Ford, there are still sectors of the market like the retail sector or the banks where there is a have strict pecking order and pressure due to the excessive control and power of the management may cause the implementation process to enflame strains and conflicts among the employees. Such results may also be a consequence of the conflict of interests between the employer and the workers as they have different perceptions of technology. While the employer is concerned with the efficiency of the new technology, the employee is concerned with issues like the technical skills and knowledge that must be obtained, the responsibility and implications of the technological change(Corbet t Scarbrough,1992). Although users have the capacity to control the interaction with technology and the flexibility to attribute in the relationship between technology and organization ,their level of interpretation is constrained by institutional contexts, economic conditions and government regulations which act as norms in the organizational environment(Orlikowski,1991). Both creative human action and manipulation over the technology and the non-direct factors mentioned above, can have an impact on the skills and expertise of the personnel and therefore it is crucial to maintain the right shaping of the technology process in order to develop a working environment consisting of respect, creativity and prosperity.Such atmosphere can be created only by satisfactory intervention of the managers. Although managers are usually presumed to influence the extent to which the innovation is adapted and used by their subordinates (Leonard-BartonDeschamps,19881252), it is suggested that the i nfluence of the managers is not always perceived equally by all employees. This is a result of the different level of knowledge and skills possessed by the workers and the personal characteristics and individual features discussed above. Therefore, a very detailed knowledge of the skills and qualities of the employees as long as a productive cooperative environment needs to be included in the implementation process of new technologies. Instead of using hierarchical means of power and control, the managerial attention should first focus on providing and advertising an adequate infrastructure supporting the innovation and then turn attention to directly motivating the later adopters (Leonard-BartonDeschamps,19881262). Here, it can be highlighted the meaning of the theory of organizational choice as It is only through human action that technology qua technology can be understood (Orlikowski,1992409).The following example will once more underline the assumption that implementation of ne w technologies does not inevitably lead to deskilling if the organization understands technology-organization relationship and acts reasonably and accurately to the problems that may occur.Zeta is a software company, operating on the territory of the United states and is one of the top 50 software companies in the country with around 1000employees and 100million US dollars in revenues. In 1992 the company decided to buy and adopt a new software which would support the faster and more convenient processing of information. The study, made in the company for a period of 2 years, tracked the introduction process of this new technology and the changes that occurred within the organization. The final conclusion of the study was that department had built on its successful implementation of groupware in interesting ways, and over the past two years had enacted significant organizational changes in a number of areas nature and distribution of work, form of collaboration, utilization and diss emination of knowledge, and coordination with internal and external units ( Orlikowski, 19951). However, the process of implementation did not happened without any setbacks. Let us look at some consequences of the introduction of the new technology on the employees skills and on the working environment as a whole. The study suggested that there were not only technical problems that physically slowed down the working process but also an atmosphere of tension, low motivation, low efficiency and tiredness among the working team due to this technical problems. Despite the logical conclusion that the implementation of this technology lead to general deskilling in the organization, the mangers succeeded to evince otherwise. For a very short period of time, the managerial strategy experienced significant changes in the sphere of process and performance monitoring, cooperative culture, professional identity and autonomy, collaboration and team-work. These changes were a result of interview s, meetings and courses that were regularly appointed in which employees strengthened their team spirit as well as their individual qualities and knowledge (Orlikowski,1995). The de-skilling effect noticed in the beginning was rapidly overcome due to the adequate decisions made by the managers and the necessary attention paid to the problems in order for noetic actions to be undertaken. In the case of Zeta Corporation , the introduction of new technology was implemented through the prism of organizational choice, with significant understanding of the power, meaning and norms in the organization-technology relationship, managerial support and decision-making and expertise over employees skills , needs and development.ConclusionIntroduction of new technologies has been an ambiguous issue, since its multifaceted nature makes control extremely difficult to achieve (Corbett Scarbrough, 199289). Having discussed the main features of technology-organization relationship, the setbacks and possible difficulties it may induce into the managerial and working environment , this essay suggests that the implementation of new technologies does not inevitably lead to de-skilling if understood and controlled adequately. The case of Zeta Corporation supports the argument that the above mentioned challenges should be considered as a positive, skill-upgrading and beneficial tool which would improve peoples knowledge and expertise. After all, Technology should be an important ingredient. It may be and should be a tool for social development (Alexander Kwasniewski).BibliographyScarbrough,H. Corbett,J.M. (1992) Technology and organizationGrint,K. Woolgar,S. (1997) The Machine at Work Technology, Work and OrganizationOrlikowski, W. (1995) Evolving with Notes Organizational transpose around Groupware Technology, available online ftp//ftp.unibocconi.it/pub/corsi/strut738/progetti/IT/evolv.htmLeonard-Barton,D. Deschamps,I. (1988) Management Science, 34 (10) p.1252-1265 Available from JSTOR, http//www.jstor.org/stable/2632162Orlikowski, W. (1992) The Duality of Technology Rethinking the Concept of Technology in Organizations, Organizational Science, 3 (3) p. 398-427 Available from JSTOR, http//www.jstor.org/stable/2635280Wood,S. (1987) The Deskilling Debate, New technology and Work Organization, Acta Sociologica, 30 (3) p.3-24 Available from http//asj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/3Helpman,E. Rangel,A. (1999) Adjustment to a New technology Experience and Training, Journal of Economic Growth, 4 359-383Turnage, J. (1990) The Challenge of New Workplace Technology for Psychology, American Psychologist, 45(2), 171-178Burkhardt,M. Brass,D. (1990) Changing Patterns or Patterns-o f Change The effect of a Change in Technology on Social Network Structure and Power, Administrative Science Quarterly,35, p.104-127

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology Essay

Hplc Analysis Of Aloe Vera Tablets Biology EssayThe project take a leak was aimed to achieve the quantitative determination of aloin and aloe emodin in the spirt of tablets by employing HPLC. The method used was reverse leg high performance bland chromatography. Calib proportionalityn curve method was used for the quantification of aloin and aloe emodin. The ready grade was the change of acetonitrile and deionised water in the ratio of 6040 respectively. The lively degree was pumped at 1.5 ml/minute and the analyte was quantified at the wavelength of 220 and 296nm. The editorial used for insularity was kromasil 5C18. Reverse phase Isocratic run of standard aloin and standard aloe emodin was done and the broadsheets obtained from their abstract were used to compargon the test warning bloom of youths. Aloe vera colax tablets manufactured by Aloe pura laboratories were used as the test take tablets which were extracted with water, methanol, acetonitrile, methanol-water a nd acetonitrile-water. After extraction they were subjected for isocratic run in HPLC instrument and the data obtained were comp bed with that of the standard.CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION1.1 Introduction to Aloe VeraAloes is the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis Miller, cognise as Curacao aloes, or of Aloe perryi Baker known as Socotrine aloes, or of Aloe ferox Miller and hybrids of the species of Aloe afri seata Miller and Aloe spicata Baker, known as Cape aloes belonging to the family Liliaceae. 2,3 The equivalent word of aloes is Aalwee, Aalwyn, Kumari, Star cactus, Aroe, Acibar, Babosa, etc. 1Aloes is indigeneous to eastern and s give awayhern Africa and grown in Cape colony, Zanzibar and islands of Socotra. It is as well as cultivated in Caribbean islands, Europe and m each part of India, including North West Himalayan region. 2All the varieties of aloe are the major sources of anthraquinone glycosides. The principal active composition of aloe is aloin, which is a mixture of glucosides, among which barbaloin is the chief constituent. It is chemically aloe-emodin anthrone C-10 glucoside and is water-soluble. 2Barbaloin is a C- glycoside and it is non hydrolysed by heating with dilute acids or alkalies. Ferric chloride decomposes barbaloin by oxidative hydrolysis into aloe-emodin-anthrone, little aloe-emodin and glucose. 2Along with barbaloin, aloes likewise contains isobarbaloin, b-barbaloin, aloe-emodin and resins. The drug also contains aloetic acid, homonataloin, aloesone, chrysophanic acid, chrysamminic acid, galactouronic acid, choline, choline salicylate, saponins, mucopolysaccharides, glucosamines, hexuronic acid, coniferyl alcohol, etc. 2The tot up of barbaloin in different commercial varieties varies to a large extent. Curacao aloes contain about 22 percent of barbaloin. Indian variety, generally Aloe vera contain actually little quantity (3.5 to 4 percent). Curacao aloes contains two and half eras quantity of aloe-emodin , co mpared to Cape-aloe-emodin. 2The resin of aloe principally contains Aloesin. It is a type of C- glucosyl chromome. Aloesin is also creditworthy for purgative action of aloes. 2Fig. 1 Fig. 2Aloin 5 Aloe emodin 61.2 Uses of Aloe VeraAloes is used as purgative. Its effect is mainly on colon. It has a concentrateder purgative action in the serial of all crude drugs with anthracene glycosidal content. To counter effect the gripping action, it is given along with carminatives. 2It facilitates the healing of any kind of skin wound, burn, or scald even hotfoot recovery snip after surgery. 4It is applied topically in acne, sunburn, frostbite (it appears to prevent decreased blood menses), shingles, screening out x-ray radiation, psoriasis, preventing scarring, rosacea, warts, wrinkles from aging, and eczema. 2, 4It also seems to help prevent opportunistic infections in cases of HIV and AIDS due to its immune system stimulant properties. 4It appears to be of help in crappercer patients (including lung green goddesscer) by cativating pureness blood kiosks and promoting growth of non- cancerous cells. 4Aloe also appears to work on heartburn, arthritis, and rheumatism pain and asthma. 2, 4It also lowers the blood sugar levels in diabetics. 2, 4Other situations in which it appears to work when taken intragrouply inclue congestion, internal worms, indigestion, stomach ulcers, colitis, hemorrhoids, liver problems such as cirrhosis and hepatitis, kidney infections, urinary tract infections, prostate problems, and as a general detoxifier. 2, 4CHAPTER 2HPLC2.1 HPLC Introduction and InstrumentationThe technique of high performance liquid chromatography is so called because of its improved performance when compared to classical newspaper column chromatography. It is also called as high-pressure liquid chromatography since pressure is used when compared to classical column chromatography. Instead of a dissolving agent being allowed to drip finished a column to a low er place gravity, it is forced finished under high pressure of up to 400 atmospheres. For the separation, identification and quantification of compounds, this method is frequently used in biochemistry and analytic chemistry. 11, 12The development of HPLC from classical column chromatography can be attributed to the development of smaller particle coats. Smaller particle size is important since they offer much surface area over the conventional large sizes. 71960s 40 to 60m1970s 10 to 20m1980s 5 to 10m1990s 1 to 3mA porous particle of 5m offers a surface area of 100-860 sq.metres/ gramme with an intermediate of 400 sq.metres/gram. These offer very high plate counts upto 100,000/metre.Table 1 Comparison of classical column chromatography with HPLC 7ParameterClassical column chromatographyHPLC nonmoving phase particle sizeLarge60-200mSmall3-20m pillar sizeLength x int. diameterLarge0.5-5m x 0.5-5cm i.d.Small5-50cm x 1-10mm i.d.Column materialGlassMostly metalColumn packing p ressureSlurry packed at low pressure often gravitySlurry packed at high pressure 5000 psiOperating pressureLow (High (500 3000 psi)Flow ratesLow to very lowMedium to high(Often 3ml/min) savour loadLow to medium (g/mg)Low to very low (mg)ParameterClassical column chromatographyHPLCCostLowHighDetector flow cell volumeLarge 300 to 1000mlLow 2 to 10mlColumn efficiencyi.e. Resolving power(Low) Theoretical plates per meter(High) often 100,000Plates per meterTypes of stationary phases procurableLimited rangeWide rangeScale of operationPreparative scaleAnalytical and preparative scale2.2 Types of HPLC techniques 7, 9, 10, 11, 12Based on Modes of ChromatographyThere are two modes viz. Normal phase mode and Reverse phase mode. These modes are comprise on the sign of the zodiac of stationary phase and mobile phase. in the beginning explaining the modes, it is important to know the interactions, which occur between solute, stationary and mobile phase.Polar Polar interaction or affini ty is moreNonpolar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is morePolar Nonpolar interaction or affinity is lessNormal phase mode In modal(prenominal) phase mode, the stationary phase (eg. Silica gel) is polar in nature and the mobile phase is non-polar. In this technique, non-polar compounds travel faster and are eluted first. This is because of less affinity between solute and stationary phase. Polar compounds are retained for longer time in the column because of more affinity towards stationary phase and take more time to be eluted from the column. This is not advantageous in pharmaceutical applications since most of the drug molecules are polar in nature and takes longer time to be eluted and detected. thusly this technique is not widely used in pharmacy.Reverse phase mode In reverse phase technique, a non-polar stationary phase is used. The mobile phase is polar in nature. Hence polar components get eluted first and non-polar compounds are retained for a longer time. Since most of the drugs and pharmaceuticals are polar in nature, they are not retained for a longer time and eluted faster, which is advantageous. Different columns used are ODS (Octadecyl silane) or C18, C8, C4, etc.Common reverse phase solvents are methanol, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuranand water.Based on principle of separationAdsorption chromatographyIon substitution chromatographyIon p breeze chromatographySize exclusion or Gel permeation chromatographyAffinity chromatographyChiral phase chromatography each(prenominal) of the above technique is described in brief as followsAdsorption chromatographyThe principle of separation is adsorption. withdrawal of components takes place because of the difference in affinity of compounds towards stationary phase. This principle is seen in normal phase as well as reverse phase mode, where adsorption takes place.Ion vary chromatographyThe principle of separation is ion flip, which is reversible exchange of functional groups. In ion exchange chromat ography, an ion exchange resin is used to separate a mixture of similar charged ions. For cations, a cation exchange resin is used. For anions, an anion exchange resin is used.Ion pair chromatographyIn ion pair chromatography, a reverse phase column is converted temporarily into ion exchange column by utilise ion mating agents like pentane or hexane or heptane or octane sulphonic acid sodium salt, trtramethyl or tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide, etc.Size exclusion or gel permeation chromatographyIn this type of chromatography, a mixture of components with different molecular sizes is separated by exploitation gels. The gel used acts as molecular sieve and hence a mixture of substances with different molecular sizes is separated. Soft gels like agarose , dextran or polyacrylamide are used. Semi rigid gels like polystyrene, alkyl dextran in non-aqueous medium are also used. The mechanism of separation is by steric and diffusion effects.Affinity chromatographyAffinity chromatography us es the affinity of the prototype with specific stationary phases. This technique is mostly used in the line of crossings of Biotechnology, Microbiology, Biochemistry, etc.Chiral phase chromatographySeparation of optical isomers can be done by using chiral stationary phases. Different principles operate for different types of stationary phases and for different samples. The stationary phases used for this type of chromatography are mostly chemically bonded silica gel.Based on elution technique1. Isocratic separationIn this technique, the same mobile phase combination is used throughout the process of separation. The same polarity or elution strength is maintained throughout the process. In this technique, the peak largeness increases with retention time linearly according to the equation for N, the phone rate of theoretical plates.Gradient separationIn this technique, a mobile phase combination of lower polarity or elution strength is used followed by gradually increasing the po larity or elution strength. One example is a gradient starting at 10% acetonitrile and shutdown at 90% acetonitrile after 25 minutes. The two components of the mobile phase are termed as A and B. Where A is the weak solvent and B is the strong solvent. Weak solvent allows the solute to elute slowly while strong solvent rapidly elutes the solutes from the column. A is usually water where as B is an organic solvent which is miscible with water such as acetonitrile, methanol, THF or isopropanol.Based on scale of operation1. Analytical HPLCWhere only analysis of the samples are done. Recovery of the samples for reusing is ordinarily not done, since the sample used is low. Eg. mg quantities.2. Preparative HPLCWhere the individual(a) fractions of pure compounds can be collected using fraction collector. The collected samples are reused eg. Separation of few grams of mixtures by HPLC.Based on type on analysis1. Qualitative analysisWhich is used to identify the compound, detect the pres ence of impurities, to find out the number of components, etc. This is done by using retention time values.2. three-figure analysisWhich is done to determine the quantity of the individual or several(prenominal) components in a mixture. This is done by canvas the peak area of the standard and sample.2.3 Principle of separation in HPLC 7, 9The principle of separation in normal phase and reverse phase mode is adsorption. When a mixture of components is introduced in to a HPLC column, they travel according to their relative affinities towards the stationary phase. The component, which has more affinity towards the adsorbant, travels slower. The component, which has less affinity towards the stationary phase, travels faster. Since no two components have the same affinity towards the stationary phase, the components are separated.2.4 Instrumental Requirements 7, 9, 10, 12Pumps solvent delivery system motley unit, gradient controller and solvent de catalystsingInjector Manual or auto injectorsGuard columnsDetectorsRecorders and integratorsFig. 3 The schematic diagram of HPLC 131. Pump Solvent delivery systemThe solvents or mobile phases used must be passed through the column at high pressure at about 1000 to 3000 psi. This is because as the particle size of stationary phase is few m (5 10m), the resistance to the flow of solvent is high. Hence such high pressure is recommended. There are different types of pumps available. They are robotlike pumps and pneumatic pumps. A mechanical pump operates with constant flow rate and uses a sapphire piston. This type of pump is used in analytical scale. pneumatic pumps operate with constant pressure and use highly compressed gas. The solvents used must be of high purity, preferably HPLC grade and filtered through 0.45m filter.Check valvesThese are present to control the flow rate of solvent and back pressure.Pulse dampnersThese are used to dampen the pulses observed from the wavy baseline caused by the pumps.2. Mixing uni t, gradient controller and solvent degassingMixing unit is used to mix solvents in different proportions and pass through the column. There are two types of potpourri units. They are low pressure mixing chamber, which uses helium for degassing solvents. High pressure mixing chamber does not require helium for degassing solvents. Mixing of solvents is done both with a static mixer, which is packed with beads, or dynamic mixer, which uses magnetic stirrer and operates under high pressure.Gradient controllerIn an isocratic separation, mobile phase is hustling by using pure solvent or mixture of solvents, i.e. solvent of same eluting power or polarity is used. solely in gradient elution technique, the polarity of the solvent is gradually increased and hence the solvent composition has to be changed. Hence a gradient controller is used when two or more solvent pumps are used for such separations.Solvent degassingSeveral gases are soluble in organic solvents. When solvents are pumped u nder high pressure, gas bubbles are formed which will interfere with the separation process, steady baseline and the shape of the peak. Hence degassing of the solvent is important. This can be done by using any one of the following technique.Vacuum filtration which can remove all air bubbles. But it is not always reliable and complete.Helium purging i.e. by passing helium through the solvent. This is very effective but helium is expensive.Ultrasonication by using ultrasonicator, which converts ultra high frequency to mechanical vibrations. This causes the removal of air bubbles.3. Injector Manual or auto injectorsSeveral devices are available either for manual or auto injection of the sample. Different devices areSeptum injectors for injecting the sample through a rubber septum. This is not common, since the septum has to withstand high pressure.Stop flow (on line) in which the flow of mobile phase is stopped for a while and the sample is injected through a valve device.Rheody ne injector (Loop valve type) It is the most popular injector. This has a fixed volume loop like 20ml or 50ml or more. Injector has two modes, i.e. load position when the sample is loaded in the loop and inject mode, when the sample is injected.4. Guard columnGuard column has very small quantity of adsorbent and improves the life of the analytical column. It also acts as a prefilter to remove particulate matter, if any, and other material. Guard column has the same material as that of analytical column. Guard column does not contribute to any separation.5. Analytical columnsAnalytical column is the most important part of HPLC technique, which decides the efficiency of separation. There are several stationary phases available depending upon the technique or mode of separation used.Column material The columns are made up of stainless steel, glass, polyethylene and PEEK (Poly ether ether ketone). Most widely used are stainless steel, which can withstand high pressure. Latest ones are PEEK columns.Column length Varies from 5cm to 30cmColumn diameter Ranges from 2mm to 50mmParticle size From 1m to 20mParticle nature Spherical, uniform sized, porous materials are used.Surface area 1 gram of stationary phase provides surface area ranging from 100 860 sq.m with an average of 400 sq.m.Functional group the functional group present in stationary phase depends on the type of chromatographic separation. In normal phase mode it contains the silanol groups (hydroxy group). In reverse phase mode it contains the following groupsC18 Octa Decyl Silane (ODS) columnC8 Octyl columnC4 Butyl columnCN Nitrile columnNH2 Amino columnFor other modes of chromatography, ion exchange columns, gel columns, chiral columns, affinity chromatographic columns, etc. are available.6. Detectors 7,9,10Detectors used depend upon the property of the compounds to be separated. Different sensors available areUV sensing element This detector is based upon the light absorption characteristics of t he sample. Two types of this detector are available. One is the fixed wavelength detector, which operates at 254nm where most drug compounds absorb. The other is the variable wavelength detector, which can be operated from 190nm to 600nm.Refractive index detector This is a non-specific or universal detector. This is not much used for analytical applications because of low sensitivity and specificity.Flourimetric detector This detector is based on the fluorescent radiation emitted by some class of compounds. The exitation wavelength and emission wavelength can be selected for each compound. This detector has more specificity and sensitivity. The disadvantage is that some compounds are not fluorescent.Conductivity detector Based upon electrical conductivity, the response is recorded. This detector is used when the sample has conducting ions like anions and cations.Amperometric detector This detector is based on the decline or oxidation of the compounds when a potential is applied. Th e diffusion current recorded is proportional to the concentration of the compound eluted. This is applicable when compounds have functional groups, which can be either oxidised or reduced. This is a highly sensitive detector.Photodiode array detector (PDA detector) This is a recent one, which is similar to UV detector, which operates from 190 600nm. Radiations of all wavelengths flow on the detector simultaneously. The resulting spectrum is a 3-D or three-dimensional plot of Response Vs Time Vs Wavelength. The advantage is that the wavelength need not be selected, but the detector detects the responses of all the compounds.7. Recorders and integratorsRecorders They are used to record the responses obtained from detectors after amplification, if necessary. They record the baseline and all the peaks obtained, with respect to time. retentiveness time for all the peaks can be found out from such preserves, but the area of individual peaks cannot be known.Integrators Integrators are improved version of recorders with some data processing capabilities. They can record the individual peaks with retention time, height, and width of peaks, peak area, percentage of area, etc. Integrators provide more information on peaks than recorders. Now a days computers and printers are used for recording and processing the obtained data and for controlling several operations.2.5 Parameters used in HPLC 7, 9, 10Retention time (Rt)Retention time is the difference in the time between the rouse of injection and appearance of peak maxima. Retention time is the time required for 50% of a component to be eluted from a column. Retention time is mensurable in minutes or seconds. Retention time is also proportional to the distance moved on a chart paper, which can be careful in cm or mm.Retention volume (Vr)Retention volume is the volume of mobile phase required to elute 50% of the component from the column. It is the product of retention time and flow rate.Retention volume = Retention time x flow rateSeparation factor (S)Separation factor is the ratio of partition co-efficient of the two components to be separated. It can be expressed and determined by using the following equationS = Kb/ Ka = Ka/ Kb = (tb t0)/ (ta t0)Where,t0 = Retention time of unretained substanceKb, Ka= Partition coefficients of b and atb, ta = Retention time of substance b and aS = depends on liquid phase, column temperatureIf there is more difference in partition coefficient between two compounds, the peaks are far apart and the separation factor is more. If the partition coefficients of two compounds are similar, then the peaks are closer and the separation factor is less.ResolutionResolution is a measure of the extent of separation of two components and the baseline separation achieved. It can be determined by using the following formulaRs = 2 (Rt1 Rt2)/ (W1 +W2)Theoretical plate (Plate theory)A theoretical plate is an imaginary or supposititious unit of a column where distribution of solute between stationary phase and mobile phase has attained equilibrium. A theoretical plate can also be called as a functional unit of the column.HETP Height Equivalent to a Theoritical Plate 18, 7A theoretical plate can be of any height, which decides the efficiency of separation. If HETP is less, the column is more efficient. If HETP is more, the column is less efficient. HETP can be calculated by using the following formulaHETP = length of the column/ number of theoretical platesHETP is given by Van Deemter equationHETP = A + (B/u ) + CuWhere,A = Eddy diffusion term or multiple pathway diffusion which arises due to packing of thecolumn. This is unaffected by mobile phase velocity or flow rate. This can beminimised by uniformity in packing.B = Longitudinal diffusion term or molecular diffusion which depends on flow rate.C = Effect of mass transfer which depends on flow rate.u = Flow rate or velocity of the mobile phase.A column is efficient only when HETP is minimum. Hence a n ideal flow rate synonymic to the minimum value of HETP is used.Efficiency (No. of theoretical plates)The number of theoretical plates expresses efficiency of a column. It can be determined by using the formulan = 16 Rt/wWhere,n = no. of theoretical platesRt = retention timew = peak width at baseRt and w are metric in common units (mm or cm or minutes or seconds) and are proportional to the distances marked on chart paper.If the number of theoretical plates is high, the column is said to be highly efficient. If the number of theoretical plates is low, the column is said to be less efficient. For gas chromatographic columns, a value of 600/ metre is sufficient. But in HPLC, high values like 40,000 to 70,000/ metre are recommended.un equilibrize factorA chromatographic peak should be symmetrical about its shopping mall and said to follow Gaussian distribution. In such cases, the peak will be like an isosceles triangle. But in practice, due to some factors, the peak is not symmetri cal and shows tailing or fronting.Fronting is due to saturation of stationary phase and can be avoided by using less quantity of sample. go after is due to more active adsorption sites and can be eliminated by support pre-treatment, more polar mobile phased increasing the amount of liquid phase.Asymmetry factor (0.95 to 1.05) can be calculated by using the formulaAF = b/a (b and a calculated at 5% or 10% of the peak height)2.6 Applications of HPLCHPLC is being more widely used in several fields. Apart from its use in Pharmaceutical field, it is used in Chemical and Petrochemical industry, environmental applications, Forensic applications, Biochemical separations, Biotechnology, Food analysis, etc. In fact there is no field where HPLC is not being used. It is a versatile and sensitive technique, which can be used in several ways. Some of them are listed belowQualitative analysis It is nothing but identification of compound. This is done by comparing the retention time of the sample a s well as the standard. Under identical conditions, the retention time of the standard and the sample are same. If there is a deviation, then they are not the same compound.Checking the purity of the compound By comparing the chromatogram of the standard and that of the sample, the purity of the compound can be inferred. If additional peaks are obtained, impurities are present and hence the compound is not pure. From the percentage area of the peaks obtained, the percentage purity can also be known.Presence of impurities This can be seen by the presence of additional peaks when compared with a reference standard or reference material. The percentage of impurities may also be calculated from peak areas.Quantitative analysis The quantity of a component can be determined by several methods likea. Direct comparison methodBy injecting a sample and standard separately and comparing their peak areas, the quantity of the sample can be determined.Area of the peak = peak height x width of pea k at the half heightA1/ A2 = a (W1/ W2)Where,A1 and A2 are peak area of sample and standardW1 and W2 are weight or concentration of sample and standarda is the response factorb. Calibration curve methodIn calibration curve method, series of standards are used to determine their peak areas. A calibration curve of peak area Vs concentration of the drug is plotted. From the peak area of the unknown sample, by intrapolation, the concentration of the sample can be determined. This method has the advantage that errors, if any, are minimised.Internal standard methodIn this method, a compound with similar retention characteristics is used. A known concentration of the internal standard is added to the sample solution whose concentration is not known. The chromatogram is recorded and their peak areas are determined. By using formula, the concentration of unknown solution is determined.Multicomponent analysis or Determination of mixture of drugs Similar to the quantification of a single drug, multicomponent analysis can be done easily. The quantity of each component is determined by using any one of the above methods. Marketed formulations, which contain several drugs, can be determined quantitatively for each component.Isolation and identification of drugs or metabolites in urine, plasma, serum, etc. can be carried out.Isolation and identification of mixture of components of natural or synthetic railway line.Biopharmaceutical and Pharmacokinetic studies.Stability studies.Purification of some compounds of natural or synthetic origin on preparative scale.2.7 Limitations 7, 10The limitations of HPLC are that drugs have to be extracted from their formulations prior to analysis and large amounts of organic solvent waste are generated which are expensive to ostracize off.CHAPTER 3Experimental Selection3.1 Aim of ProjectThe aim of this project was to carry out the quantitative determination of the active pharmaceutical ingredient aloin and aloe-emodin in the given Aloe Vera Colax tablets, manufactured by Aloe Pura laboratories and to compare the results with the given standard aloin and aloe-emodin. The technique used for analysis was reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography method. The analysis was performed using standard calibration curve generated at 220 and 296nm wavelength.3.2 Chromatographic equipment and conditionsAll the chromatographic equipments and conditions, which were used to perform HPLC in a laboratory environment under simulated GLP compliance conditions, are listed below.3.2.1 HPLC system 5 (used for isocratic elution)This system is manufactured by Agilent technologies 1200 series, whose model number is G1310A and the serial number is DE 629565453.2.2 Software usedThe computer software used was Microsoft windows XP, Pentium D whose product number is G 2175 BA, revision code is B. 03. 01 and its registration number is CL1CE8DB0F3.2.3 Column usedThe column used was Kromasil 5C18 whose test number is 9203- 103443.2.4 Pipet te usedThe pipette used was Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S. No. 29186, Model R680/ F, 0-1000 mL and Volac ultra (made in U.K.), S.No. 29185, Model R680/ F, 500-5000 mL.3.2.5 Analytical BalanceMettler balance AC 88 was used to weigh the sample drug whose Biom

EhlersDanlos Syndrome :: essays papers

EhlersDanlos SyndromeEhlers-Danlos sydrome (EDS) is a r atomic number 18 inherited group of connective wander disorders characterized by defects of the major structural protein in the body (collagen). Collagen is a tough fibrous protein that plays an essential role in binding, holding together, strengthening, and providing elasticity to bodily cells and create from raw materials. at that place atomic number 18 six major types of EDS that I leave behind demonstrate, however I will only go into detailed discussion on twain of the six types of EDS. The two major types of EDS are Classical EDS and Hypermobile EDS. These two types make up 90% of all EDS cases. I will discuss the general symptoms of these two types along with pathology, then diagnostic factors, and the different treatments for this disorder (Smith).EDS whoremaster vary in severity and are communicate as autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, or X-linked recessive traits. The primary characteristics are hyperexte nsible skin and correlatives (Dia. 1-2, pg.6), tendency to bruise easily (Dia. 3, pg.6), reduced wound healing capability, pseudotumors, and ocular defects. Differences in spite of appearance the six types may reflect inter/intra familial variability or genetic heterogeneity. Each type of EDS is classified symptoms and signs that are resulted (Clarke, D., Skrocki-Czerpak, K., Neumann-Potash, L). on that point are approximately six types of EDS that have been distinguished but other types exist that are very uncommon. Classical, Hypermobile, Vascular, Kyphoscoliosis, Arthrochalasia, and Dermatosparaxis. Classical and Hypermobile make up over 90% of all reported cases of EDS. With the Classical type of EDS a person would have hyperextensible (stretchy) skin with widened atrophic scars and joint hypermobility. The skin is smooth and velvet-textured with tissue fragility and easy brusability. Also evident are molluscoid pseudotumors (fleshy lesions associated with scars) frequently found over pressure points (e.g. elbows) and subcutaneous spheroids, which are commonly mobile and clear on the forearms and shins. Complications of joint hypemobility include sprains, dislocation are common in the shoulder, patella and temporomandibular joints Muscle hypotonia and slower gross motor development likewise can occur It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner (Clarke, D., Skrocki-Czerpak, K., Neumann-Potash, L.).In the Hypermobile type of EDS the joints of the body experience Hypermobility, which is the dominant clinical manifestation. global joint hypermobility affects large (elbows, knees) and small (fingers and toes) joints are evident. Skin is hyperextensible, smooth/velvety, and bruising occurs easily as well. Reoccurring joint dislocations are common, and joints such as shoulder, patella, and temporomandibular joint dislocate frequently. continuing joint and limb pain is a common amongst individuals with Hypermobile type EDS.EhlersDanlos Syndrome es says papersEhlersDanlos SyndromeEhlers-Danlos sydrome (EDS) is a rare inherited group of connective tissue disorders characterized by defects of the major structural protein in the body (collagen). Collagen is a tough fibrous protein that plays an essential role in binding, holding together, strengthening, and providing elasticity to bodily cells and tissues. There are six major types of EDS that I will discuss, however I will only go into detailed discussion on two of the six types of EDS. The two major types of EDS are Classical EDS and Hypermobile EDS. These two types make up 90% of all EDS cases. I will discuss the general symptoms of these two types along with pathology, then diagnostic factors, and the different treatments for this disorder (Smith).EDS can vary in severity and are transmitted as autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, or X-linked recessive traits. The primary characteristics are hyperextensible skin and joints (Dia. 1-2, pg.6), tendency to bruise easily (Dia. 3, pg.6), reduced wound healing capability, pseudotumors, and ocular defects. Differences within the six types may reflect inter/intra familial variability or genetic heterogeneity. Each type of EDS is classified symptoms and signs that are resulted (Clarke, D., Skrocki-Czerpak, K., Neumann-Potash, L).There are approximately six types of EDS that have been distinguished but other types exist that are very uncommon. Classical, Hypermobile, Vascular, Kyphoscoliosis, Arthrochalasia, and Dermatosparaxis. Classical and Hypermobile make up over 90% of all reported cases of EDS. With the Classical type of EDS a person would have hyperextensible (stretchy) skin with widened atrophic scars and joint hypermobility. The skin is smooth and velvety with tissue fragility and easy brusability. Also evident are molluscoid pseudotumors (fleshy lesions associated with scars) frequently found over pressure points (e.g. elbows) and subcutaneous spheroids, which are commonly mobile and palpable on the forearms and shins. Complications of joint hypemobility include sprains, dislocation are common in the shoulder, patella and temporomandibular joints Muscle hypotonia and slower gross motor development also can occur It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner (Clarke, D., Skrocki-Czerpak, K., Neumann-Potash, L.).In the Hypermobile type of EDS the joints of the body experience Hypermobility, which is the dominant clinical manifestation. General joint hypermobility affects large (elbows, knees) and small (fingers and toes) joints are evident. Skin is hyperextensible, smooth/velvety, and bruising occurs easily as well. Reoccurring joint dislocations are common, and joints such as shoulder, patella, and temporomandibular joint dislocate frequently. Chronic joint and limb pain is a common amongst individuals with Hypermobile type EDS.

Artemis :: essays research papers fc

The Goddess Artemis Those who invated Artemiss privacy, her goals, or restricted her freedom where paid dearly. When the hunter, Actaeon, accidentally came upon Artemis fleck she was bathing, she turned him into a stag and then his own hunting dogs attacked him and tore him to pieces. Artemis is the goddess of hunting and the moon. Her Roman name is Diana, and Greek name is Artemis. Artemis symbols are a crescent, a stag, and arrows. Artemis has many another(prenominal) characteristics and is connected to todays ordering in many ways. She has a big family and lots of stories behind them, and there are many myths close to her. First of all, Artemis had many different characteristics. Many quite a little call Artemis wonder women, because she can do almost anything. She is brave as any man, as untouchable as any man, and can hunt and kill any beast. She can be described as an environmentalist. Artemis was not know to have a conform to relationship with men, not including her br other. She always was responsive to the needs or the vulnerable and the suffering. Artemis was the most independent of the goddesses, and one who lived for new challenges. In todays society many people get the wonder women character from her and place them on the more recent wonder women. She is seen as a feminist goddess to many people in this society. When people in todays society use the bow and arrow as a symbol for hunter they get it from Artemis. non only did she have many characteristics, but she had a very loving family. Artemiss twin brother is Apollo. She loved her brother and was very close to him. Artemiss mother was Leto, Artemis and Apollo both adored there mother. No one could ever say anything bad about Leto with Artemis and Apollo doing something about it. Artemis caused her mother no pain during childbirth. Artemiss father was Zeus king of the gods. When Zeus asked Artemis what she wanted for her third birthday, she told him that she just wanted six simple gifts a nd Zeus gave them to her. Finally there are many myths about Artemis. The only time Artemis ever loved a man, Apollo got jealous and tricked her. One day, Apollo bet that Artemis couldnt hit the object swimming in the far water with an arrow. She was filled with confidence in her skill with her archery, and accepted his challenge.

A Midsummer Nights Dream - Hermia And Helenas Relationship Essay

Hermia and capital of Montanas relationship has changed greatly after the intervention of Puck with the spot potion. Once best friends, they have become each others enemies, and all for the love of Lysander and Demetrius.Hermia and capital of Montana were best friends when they were at school. "All school-days friendship, childhood innocence?"(Act 3, Scene 2, bloodline 201, Helena)They had complete trust in each other, telling each other their deepest secrets. "Is all the counsel that we two have shared,The sisters vows, the hours that we have spent," (Act 3, Scene 2, Lines 198 - 199, Helena)They worked together on everything they did including sewing and singing. "Both on one sampler, sitting on one cushion,Both warbling of one song, both in one key," (Act 3, Scene 2, Lines 205 - 206)To some people, Helena and Hermia became the same person, saying the same things, thinking the same thoughts and having the same morals and principles. "As if our hands, o ur sides, voices, and mindsHad been incorporate. So we grew together," (Act 3, Scene 2, Lines 207-208)Behaving in the same way, they spent as overmuch time as possible together. This time passed quickly, whilst the time spent apart was slow and seemed pointless. "When we have chid the hasty-footed timeFor parting us-O, is all forgot?"(Act 3, Scene 2, Lines 200 - 201, Helena)Although Helena and Hermia were two separate people, they were, "a union in partition", compared to a ...

Macro Economics :: essays papers

Macro Economics1.Developing a model of an economy means answering the question(s) ofa.what to realise.b.how to produce.c.for whom to produce.d.what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce.e.Only what to produce and how to produce, since distribution is not the task of economics.2.Every year during the holidays there seems to be a great demand for some particular hot toy. This is an example of the personnel of _________ on demand.a.tastes and preferencesb.expectationsc.incomed.prices of other full(a)se.wealth3.A market is in equilibrium when there isa.excess demand.b.excess supply.c.a shortage.d.a surplus.e.None of the above.4.The equilibrium amount of money in a market could remain unchanged if there were a/an _________ in demand offset by a/an ________ in supply.a. step-up, decreaseb.increase, increasec.decrease, decreased. None of the above.5. Which of the following is microeconomics? a. A study of national output growth in Japan. b. A study of IB M sales since 1995. c. A study of Irish employment levels. d. A study of unemployment in Sweden. e. None of the above can be considered microeconomics.6.Which of the following would NOT cause the demand for a normal good or service to decrease?a.An increase in the price of the product.b.The income available to the household decreases.c.Other goods which are good substitutes become available.d.Households have negative expectations most future income, wealth and prices.e.None of the above. All of the above would cause a decrease in demand.7.Refer to Figure 4.1. Which dialog box best depicts the following situation I do not buy Cola Cola at the supermarket because other brand is on sale.a.panel 1b.panel 5c.panel 6d.panel 7 e. panel 88.If there were an increase in the price of hamburger,a.the quantity demanded of hamburger would decrease.b.the demand for catsup would decrease.c.the demand for hamburger rolls would decrease.d.All of the above.e.No ne of the above.9. The conventional bowed-out shape of the production possibilities curve implies a. producers are unable to utilize specialized resources efficiently. b. shifting production from one good to another leads to increasing opportunity costs. c.

Kuwait Parliment Misunderstands democracy for women :: essays research papers fc

The Kuwait Parliament Misunderstands Democracy for WomenWith the upcoming elections in the United States approaching this November, the thought came to mind of ballot rights in other countries. As an American citizen, I have leadd in Kuwait for all over 19 years. When I went to the U.S. Embassy to submit my absentee ballot, it came to mind that I live in a country where women ar not allowed to exercise the right to vote. Womens suffrage in America took 70 years of discrimination until the 19th Amendment was passed on August 26, 1920, allowing women to vote. The suffragists undertook action through lobbying, petition gathering, lectures and writings. Kuwaiti women have been fighting for 40 years and argon still fighting for the right to vote.Kuwait is a country about the size of New Jersey and it is a very modern society by western standards. It is considered one of the richest nations in the world, since it has the third largest crude oil reserves. Kuwait being a social welfar gon state is highly developed with a free market economy. The monarchy government rules the country and has the only elective Parliament in the Persian Gulf countries. What does all this mean? Being a Kuwaiti national has its benefits, including free education from primary school to university. Statistics showed that over 70% of the total graduates at the local university are women studying engineering and medicine. Health care for Kuwaitis is free, but for expatriates, small fees are applied to some services. Taxes are not imposed in Kuwait, and electricity is subsidized 80% by the government, so as not to burden residents. This means electricity and water are included in the rent cost, and phone service inside the country is free. Fast, expensive cars are something of the norm and shopping malls with the latest fashions from around the world are abundant. The population of Kuwait is about 2.5 million however only 27% are Kuwaiti nationals. From this figure there are 1.5 men to ev ery Kuwaiti woman. The voting rights for eligible Kuwaiti men who have been citizens for over 20 years are allowed to contest in elections. Presently, all Kuwaiti men having the nationality over 20 years are allowed to vote, except men in the military and police force.Under the 1961 constitution, the following articles support equality among genders.Article 6 provides "the system of government in Kuwait shall be democratic, under which sovereignty resides in the people, the sources of all powers.